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Evidence Matters | Understanding the School-to-Prison Pipeline: How Discipline and Academic Inequality Shape Student Outcomes
Education is often described as a pathway to opportunity, opening doors to careers, personal growth, and long-term stability. For many students, school provides the support and resources needed to build a strong future. However, researchers and educators have increasingly explored how certain patterns within education—such as disciplinary policies and ongoing academic challenges—can sometimes make it harder for students to stay connected to school. These patterns are often discussed through the concept of the school-to-prison pipeline, which examines how discipline practices and academic struggles together may influence students’ long-term outcomes. Understanding how these factors interact can help educators, families, and communities identify ways to better support students and ensure that schools remain places where every learner has the opportunity to succeed.
One factor often discussed in connection with the school-to-prison pipeline is the use of strict disciplinary policies, including zero-tolerance rules. These policies require specific consequences—such as suspension or expulsion—for certain behaviors. While they were originally designed to promote safety and consistency, research suggests that removing students from the classroom can sometimes have unintended academic effects. The American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force found that exclusionary discipline can lead to missed instructional time and may contribute to students falling behind in their coursework. When students miss class repeatedly, it can become more difficult for them to keep up with lessons and remain engaged in school.
Schools have also increasingly partnered with law enforcement officers, often through School Resource Officer (SRO) programs, to help maintain safety. These programs are intended to create secure learning environments and build positive relationships between students and law enforcement. However, some researchers note that when law enforcement becomes involved in school discipline situations, behaviors that were once addressed within the school may sometimes lead to legal consequences. The American Civil Liberties Union has suggested that this dynamic may introduce some students to the justice system earlier than in the past.
Alongside discipline practices, academic performance plays an important role in students’ educational experiences and long-term outcomes. Students who experience ongoing academic difficulties may become discouraged or disconnected from school over time. Studies have shown that completing high school is strongly associated with better economic and social outcomes. According to the Alliance for Excellent Education, individuals who graduate from high school are significantly less likely to experience incarceration compared with those who do not complete their education.
Early academic development—particularly reading proficiency—is also an important factor in long-term success. The Annie E. Casey Foundation reported that students who are not reading proficiently by the end of third grade are more likely to struggle academically in later grades and are four times more likely to drop out of high school. Because academic skills build on one another over time, early support in literacy and foundational subjects can play a key role in helping students stay on track.
Educational resources and opportunities can also influence student outcomes. Schools serving lower-income communities may face challenges such as larger class sizes, fewer academic support resources, or limited access to enrichment programs. These conditions can make it more difficult to provide individualized attention for students who need additional help. At the same time, students in these environments may be more likely to encounter disciplinary actions that remove them from the classroom, which can further exacerbate academic difficulties.
For these reasons, many educators emphasize the importance of balanced approaches that support both positive discipline and strong academic development. Strategies such as restorative practices, tutoring programs, early literacy initiatives, and access to counseling services aim to keep students engaged in school while addressing challenges constructively.
Overall, discussions about the school-to-prison pipeline highlight the importance of creating school environments where students are exposed to both consistent expectations and meaningful academic support. When schools focus on helping students remain connected to their education, and provide assistance when difficulties arise, better outcomes for students and communities alike are the result.
Read Part II of this series, which takes a closer look at practices that are working.
Kelly Gregory is the Riley Institute’s Director for Public Education Partnerships and Projects and previously taught for 11 years in South Carolina public schools. She holds a bachelor’s degree in Psychology and a master’s degree in Special Education. She also holds a National Board certification as an Exceptional Needs Specialist. She can be reached at [email protected].